Theory And Practice Of Supervision

By Author: James White
Total Articles: 29
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Executive summary
There are a number of interpretations of the word supervision, but normally supervision involves the activities performed by supervisors in overseeing the productivity and development of employees who account directly to the supervisor. For instance, a first-level supervisor will supervise entry-level employees. Regarding the extent of an organization, middle-managers will supervise first-level supervisors, while chief executives will supervise the middle-managers, etc. thus supervision is a managing activity and supervisors have management roles in an organization. (Rue and Byars, 2006)
Occasionally, authors will exchange leadership and supervision. However, both activities are very much related. Supervision needs leadership. But leadership do not essentially have to entail supervision. Different theories and model have been put across t explain the various approaches used by supervisors and their role in an organization. This study paper will examine the theories and functions performed by supervisors in an organization or any other set up.

Kadushin's theory of supervision
Alfred ...
... Kadushin's discusses theory of supervision in social work which he draws back to previous works of John Dawson (1926) who outlined the functions of supervision as follows:
Administrative: the supervisor has a role of promoting and maintaining good standards of work, co-ordinating practice with policies of management, the guaranteeing of efficient and smooth-running office
Educational: a supervisor has to ensure educational advancement of every individual worker on the organization in a way calculated to stir up his/her entirely to realize his/her potential of usefulness
Supportive: the upholding of harmonious working relations in an organisation, the promotion of organization spirit. (Kadushin, 1992)
In addition to that, Salaman (1995) argues that supervisors should be concerned about both learning and performance of workers. The critically managerial aspects of supervisor s' work is their duty to monitor and improve the work of other workers. Their managerial efficiency is determined through their capability to improve others work. If supervisors are unable to offer this contribution to an organization then the will not be performing their duty, and thus they will not be adding any value to the organization. The only definitive justification of supervisors' existence in an organization is the enhancement of their subordinates' work. If supervisors fail in this way they fail as supervisors.
In this manner supervisors are expect to build up relationships and working environments that enable workers to work collectively and respond to any changes. Such collective performance entails having common objectives, common values, right structures, and continuous training and development (Marken & Payne, 1987)
However there are some circumstances where these three elements are not all there. For instance, an organization might have fallen into a strong duty orientation with a specific worker. Which is quite common, thus a supervisor may possibly focus somewhat too strongly on supportive side. Nonetheless, is good to think about the three elements as interlinked or overlapping with each other

Supposing one element is removed then the process becomes possibly less rewarding to both the parties, and less successful. It is simple to simply identify managerial supervision with administrative supervision.
Administration
Kadushin constricts on Dawson's concept and forwards his understanding of the three aspects in regards to the principal problem and the main goal. For administrative supervision the principal problem is mainly concerned with the proper, effective and suitable implementation of an organization procedures and policies. The main goal is to make sure that policy and procedure are adhered to (Kadushin 1992) .The supervisor is given authority by the organization to supervise the work of the supervisees. This carries the following responsibility:
Both to make sure that organization policy are implemented; which means a management function - and also a parallel duty to facilitate supervisees to work well to their best.
It also involves a duty not to lose focus with the foundation for the organization of providing first-class service to clients who require the services or goods the organization is providing. (Marken & Payne, 1987)

Education
In educational function the principal problem according to Kadushin (1992) is the worker lack of knowledge and/or ineptitude concerning the knowledge, skills and attitude needed to perform the job. The main goal is to drive out lack of knowledge and upgrading his/her skill. The classic method entailed with this duty is encouraging reflection on work, and exploring the work. Supervisees might be assisted by the supervisor to:
1. Understand the customer better
2. Become more conscious of their individual reaction and response to the customer
3. Comprehend the relations of how they are supposed to interact with consumers/clients
4. Observe how they interceded and the consequences of this interrelation
5. Explore other approaches of working with such a method and other similarly client circumstances (Marken & Payne, 1987)
Support
For supportive supervision the principal problem is an employee morale and also job satisfaction. The main objective is to enhance morale of the employee and his/her job satisfaction (Kadushin 1992) Employees are viewed as facing a various job-related pressures which, unless the employees have assistance to tackle with them, these pressures could critically affect employees' work and result to unsatisfactory services to clients. For the employee there is eventually the problem of burnout.
Kadushin points out that the administration and educational forms of supervision centre on instrumental requirements, while supportive supervision is mainly concerned with expressive requirements (Kadushin 1992)
The supervisor looks for preventing the developing of likely stressful circumstances, removes an employee from stress, lessens stress encroaching on the employee, and assists him/her adjust to any stress. The supervisor is accessible and approachable any time, communicates assurance in the employee, offers perspective, and forgives failure when it is appropriate, approves and also shares responsibility for various decisions, presents opportunities for autonomous functioning and for possible success in duty achievement. (Kadushin 1992)

Developmental model of supervision
Fundamental developmental model of supervision is the concept that each person is constantly growing. Through combining our own experience plus hereditary inclinations an individual develops strengths and growth aspects. The objective is to maximize and discover growth required for the future. Consequently, it is usual to be constantly discovering new aspects of growth in a lifetime learning progression. Worthington (1987) re-examined developmental supervision model and noted some patterns. Studies exposed that the behaviour of supervisors varied as supervisees increased experience, also the supervisory relationship changed. It appears there is a scientific basis for developmental inclinations and patterns in supervision. Consequently ones a supervisor is aware of the changing patterns and the manner in which an employee will adjust as he/she gain experience in the organization, Worthington (1987) suggest that the supervisor should then also modify his/her approaches of supervision.

Key functions of a supervisor
Supervisors are part of human resources management and thus have important role in ensuring that the objectives of the organizations are achieved and at the same time ensuring that good relationship between the management and employees is maintained. To this end the supervisor has got the following roles in an organization which he has to perform, this are outlined below:
Counselling/discipline
Employees need to be counselled at work as they may have both personal and organizational problems. These problems can be as a result of, bad attitudes, insufficient training, and personality conflicts. It is the duty of the supervisor to offer counselling or discipline measure for an employee having such problems. In addition the supervisor has got to Practice dynamic listening, and offer feedback as to what worker is saying.

Planning
As part of the management the supervisor will have a duty of planning work for the employees in accordance to the goals of the organization and the ability of individual workers. The set duty or assignment should be reasonable and also measurable; also the supervisor will have to assess the available resources to be used and formulate contingency plans and coordinate the activity. The objectives and the goals assigned should be measured in terms of clear and specific quality, quantity and time frame for achieving the set objectives and goals. It is important that the supervisor defines the objectives achievement as a yardstick to measure performance of an employee. In addition as part of planning the supervisor has the following function; (Marken & Payne, 1987)
1. Assessing resources which include: human resource, finances, equipment, supplies/ information, methods/approaches, and the crucial element of time.
2. Developing contingency plans and putting in mind the following before deciding the best: objectives, flexibility, complexity, side effects, and risk/reward proportion.
3. Clearly communicating defined objectives, goals, and expected end results. Most significantly, communicate any changes fully and on a constant basis. (Salaman, 1995)

Delegation
The supervisor will have to delegate duties to his/her subordinate, effective delegation of duties encompasses defined objectives, tolerance, timely feedback, and corrective actions. Delegation means a shared responsibility and not passing off responsibility. The supervisor delegates through assigning duties, granting proper levels of power to carry out those duties, and creating contract to perform the duties. General barriers involved in delegation includes: lack of confidence in employee, lack of suitable planning, supervisor loss of job satisfaction, dreading to make errors and feelings of insecurity/inadequacy the supervisor has a duty of providing continual response on performance. (Salaman, 1995)

Problem solving and decision making
It is the duty of the supervisor in a organization to identify possible problems, potential causes, and preventive measures to be undertaken. Decisions making need to be undertaken by the employee who is an expert on the issue, the supervisor however should gather the correct amount of facts and assess risks involved. (Salaman, 1995)

Communication
Communication is usually used within the organization's internal communication by the supervisors as share information with the employees' management and customers. Such sharing of information builds communication channels and enhances it. The main goals of communication are; to be understood, comprehend others, support action, and be accepted. However during communication some common barriers to efficient communication may occur, this are: differences in perceptions, close-ended process, jargon, prejudgments, stereotypes, actions versus words and emotions, the supervisor has a duty of ensuring the organization objectives are correctly communicated to the employees and in the same ensure that employees communicate their issues to the organization this will ensure effective understanding and smooth running of the organization. In addition the supervisor will have to handle rumours cautiously. Being forthcoming, sincere and truthful will ensure that both the employees and the management trust and willingly communicate to the supervisor. (Salaman, 1995)
Motivation
Employees need to be motivated in order for the organization to get the best out of them. An employee who is well motivated will easily stay in the organisation and be more productive. For this to occur the supervisor have to attend to the financial and psychological needs of the workers by rewarding them well. The workforce today is much more educated and specialized in their field, thus, employees are becoming more concerned with job satisfaction, participation, involvement and other factors besides financial benefits. Therefore, the supervisor has to come up with strategies which will inspire the workers so that they give their best. To this end the supervisor will have to perform the following aspects;
1. Developing a motivational environment includes: acting as a proper role model, involve employees in decision making and problem solving and use effective communication.
2. Try to present employees with the entire picture of the assignment.
3. Create time to listen to employees.
4. Grant opportunities for employee comments, suggestions and innovations.
5. Enhance employee's career development and advancement
6. Keep employees informed of issues which affect their jobs.
7. Encourage a range of diverse opinions in a positive approach. (Salaman, 1995)

Interpersonal relations
Personal relationship in a work place is crucial, it makes an employee feel valued and cared for, the supervisor will therefore have a duty of cultivating good interpersonal relations among himself and the employees. The supervisor is supposed not to have favourites but instead should look for fine points and have a concern in all employees. He should also maintain self-control; stay poised, particularly during stressful moments. The supervisor also needs to promote involvement of employees and make suggestions for improvement/alternatives. More so the supervisor should;
1. Watch what he says and how you say it: the content, tone, style and pace offer clues from which employees draw conclusions.
2. Be diplomatic: By not using or contributing in ethnic humour or cynicism. Maintain confidential information that way.
3. Sharpen his timing skills.
Good supervisor and employee interpersonal relationships lead to high morale of employee, improved productivity, and ease of supervision. This in turn leads to high returns to the organization. (Christian, & Kitto, 1987)

Conclusion
In this study paper Kadushin theory and development theory of supervision have been highlighted. The functions of the supervisor have been also clearly stated. Some important points outlined in the study are as follows: The essential focus of supervision is the quality of service offered by the supervisee or employees to consumers; Supervision is seen as comprising three main aspects: administration; education and support. Supervisors' power is gotten from their positions in organization. Supervisors perform various function among them Counselling/discipline, planning, delegation of duties, motivation communication and crating suitable interpersonal relationships. It is thus a clear that supervisors are very important in ensuring that the management achieves the organization's goals and objectives and that employees perform there duties well.
Appendix
The table below outlines the main duties of a supervisor towards employees and to the management of an organization.

Reference:
Christian, C. & Kitto, J. (1987): The Theory and Practice of Supervision, London: YMCA National College..
Feltham, C. and Dryden, W. (1994): Developing Counsellor Supervision, London: Sage.
Kadushin, A. (1992): Supervision in Social Work (3rd. ed.), New York: Columbia University Press.
Marken, M. & Payne, M (1987): Enabling and Ensuring. Supervision in practice, Leicester: National Youth Bureau
Rue and Byars (2006): Key Link to Productivity (9th edition) McGraw-Hill
Salaman, G. (1995): Managing, Buckingham: Open University Press

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